janet/doc/Introduction.md

Hello, world!

Following tradition, a simple Janet program will print "Hello, world!".

(print "Hello, world!")

Put the following code in a file named hello.janet, and run ./janet hello.janet. The words "Hello, world!" should be printed to the console, and then the program should immediately exit. You now have a working janet program!

Alternatively, run the program ./janet without any arguments to enter a REPL, or read eval print loop. This is a mode where Janet functions like a calculator, reading some input from the user, evaluating it, and printing out the result, all in an infinite loop. This is a useful mode for exploring or prototyping in Janet.

This hello world program is about the simplest program one can write, and consists of only a few pieces of syntax. This first element is the print symbol. This is a function that simply prints its arguments to the console. The second argument is the string literal "Hello, world!", which is the one and only argument to the print function. Lastly, the print symbol and the string literal are wrapped in parentheses, forming a tuple. In Janet, parentheses and brackets are interchangeable, brackets are used mostly when the resulting tuple is not a function call. The tuple above indicates that the function print is to be called with one argument, "Hello, world".

Like all lisps, all operations in Janet are in prefix notation; the name of the operator is the first value in the tuple, and the arguments passed to it are in the rest of the tuple.

A bit more - Arithmetic

Any programming language will have some way to do arithmetic. Janet is no exception, and supports the basic arithmetic operators

# Prints 13
# (1 + (2*2) + (10/5) + 3 + 4 + (5 - 6))
(print (+ 1 (* 2 2) (/ 10 5) 3 4 (- 5 6)))

Just like the print function, all arithmetic operators are entered in prefix notation. Janet also supports the remainder operator, or %, which returns the remainder of division. For example, (% 10 3) is 1, and (% 10.5 3) is 1.5. The lines that begin with # are comments.

Janet actually has two "flavors" of numbers; integers and real numbers. Integers are any integer value between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 (32 bit signed integer). Reals are real numbers, and are represented by IEEE-754 double precision floating point numbers. That means that they can represent any number an integer can represent, as well fractions to very high precision.

Although real numbers can represent any value an integer can, try to distinguish between real numbers and integers in your program. If you are using a number to index into a structure, you probably want integers. Otherwise, you may want to use reals (this is only a rule of thumb).

Arithmetic operator will convert integers to real numbers if needed, but real numbers will not be converted to integers, as not all real numbers can be safely converted to integers.

Numeric literals

Numeric literals can be written in many ways. Numbers can be written in base 10, with underscores used to separate digits into groups. A decimal point can be used for floating point numbers. Numbers can also be written in other bases by prefixing the number with the desired base and the character 'r'. For example, 16 can be written as 16, 1_6, 16r10, 4r100, or 0x10. The 0x prefix can be used for hexadecimal as it is so common. The radix must be themselves written in base 10, and can be any integer from 2 to 36. For any radix above 10, use the letters as digits (not case sensitive).

Numbers can also be in scientific notation such as 3e10. A custom radix can be used as well as for scientific notation numbers, (the exponent will share the radix). For numbers in scientific notation with a radix besides 10, use the & symbol to indicate the exponent rather then e.

Arithmetic Functions

Besides the 5 main arithmetic functions, janet also supports a number of math functions taken from the C library <math.h>, as well as bitwise operators that behave like they do in C or Java. Functions like math/sin, math/cos, math/log, and math/exp will behave as expected to a C programmer. They all take either 1 or 2 numeric arguments and return a real number (never an integer!) Bitwise functions are all prefixed with b. Thet are bnot, bor, bxor, band, blshift, brshift, and brushift. Bitwise functions only work on integers.

Strings, Keywords and Symbols

Janet supports several varieties of types that can be used as labels for things in your program. The most useful type for this purpose is the keyword type. A keyword begins with a semicolon, and then contains 0 or more alphanumeric or a few other common characters. For example, :hello, :my-name, ::, and :ABC123_-*&^%$ are all keywords. Keywords are actually just special cases of symbols, which are similar but don't start with a semicolon. The difference between symbols and keywords is that keywords evaluate to themselves, while symbols evaluate to whatever they are bound to. To have a symbol evaluate to itself, it must be quoted.

# Evaluates to :monday
:monday

# Will throw a compile error as monday is not defined
monday

# Quote it - evaluates to the symbol monday
'monday

# Or first define monday
(def monday "It is monday")

# Now the evaluation should work - monday evaluates to "It is monday"
monday

The most common thing to do with a keyword is to check it for equality or use it as a key into a table or struct. Note that symbols, keywords and strings are all immutable. Besides making your code easier to reason about, it allows for many optimizations involving these types.

# Evaluates to true
(= :hello :hello)

# Evaluates to false, everything in janet is case sensitive
(= :hello :HeLlO)

# Look up into a table - evaluates to 25
(get {
    :name "John"
    :age 25
    :occupation "plumber"
} :age)

Strings can be used similarly to keywords, but there primary usage is for defining either text or arbitrary sequences of bytes. Strings (and symbols) in janet are what is sometimes known as "8-bit clean"; they can hold any number of bytes, and are completely unaware of things like character encodings. This is completely compatible with ASCII and UTF-8, two of the most common character encodings. By being encoding agnostic, janet strings can be very simple, fast, and useful for for other uses besides holding text.

Literal text can be entered inside quotes, as we have seen above.

"Hello, this is a string."

# We can also add escape characters for newlines, double quotes, backslash, tabs, etc.
"Hello\nThis is on line two\n\tThis is indented\n"

# For long strings where you don't want to type a lot of escape characters,
# you can use 1 or more backticks (`\``) to delimit a string.
# To close this string, simply repeat the opening sequence of backticks
``
This is a string.
Line 2
    Indented
"We can just type quotes here", and backslashes \ no problem.
``

Functions

Janet is a functional language - that means that one of the basic building blocks of your program will be defining functions (the other is using data structures). Because janet is a Lisp, functions are values just like numbers or strings - they can be passed around and created as needed.

Functions can be defined with the defn macro, like so:

(defn triangle-area
 "Calculates the area of a triangle."
 [base height]
 (print "calculating area of a triangle...")
 (* base height 0.5))

A function defined with defn consists of a name, a number of optional flags for def, and finally a function body. The example above is named triangle-area and takes two parameters named base and height. The body of the function will print a message and then evaluate to the area of the triangle.

Once a function like the above one is defined, the programmer can use the triangle-area function just like any other, say print or +.

# Prints "calculating area of a triangle..." and then "25"
(print (triangle-area 5 10))

Note that when nesting function calls in other function calls like above (a call to triangle-area is nested inside a call to print), the inner function calls are evaluated first. Also, arguments to a function call are evaluated in order, from first argument to last argument).

Because functions are first-class values like numbers or strings, they can be passed as arguments to other functions as well.

(print triangle-area)

This prints the location in memory of the function triangle area.

Functions don't need to have names. The fn keyword can be used to introduce function literals without binding them to a symbol.

# Evaluates to 40
((fn [x y] (+ x x y)) 10 20)
# Also evaluates to 40
((fn [x y &] (+ x x y)) 10 20)

# Will throw an error about the wrong arity
((fn [x] x) 1 2)
# Will not throw an error about the wrong arity
((fn [x &] x) 1 2)

The first expression creates an anonymous function that adds twice the first argument to the second, and then calls that function with arguments 10 and 20. This will return (10 + 10 + 20) = 40.

There is a common macro defn that can be used for creating functions and immediately binding them to a name. defn works as expected at both the top level and inside another form. There is also the corresponding

Note that putting an ampersand at the end of the argument list inhibits strict arity checking. This means that such a function will accept fewer or more arguments than specified.

(defn myfun [x y]
 (+ x x y))

# You can think of defn as a shorthand for def and fn together
(def myfun-same (fn [x y]
            (+ x x Y)))

(myfun 3 4) # -> 10

Janet has many macros provided for you (and you can write your own). Macros are just functions that take your source code and transform it into some other source code, usually automating some repetitive pattern for you.

Defs and Vars

Values can be bound to symbols for later use using the keyword def. Using undefined symbols will raise an error.

(def a 100)
(def b (+ 1 a))
(def c (+ b b))
(def d (- c 100))

Bindings created with def have lexical scoping. Also, bindings created with def are immutable; they cannot be changed after definition. For mutable bindings, like variables in other programming languages, use the var keyword. The assignment special form set can then be used to update a var.

(var myvar 1)
(print myvar)
(set myvar 10)
(print myvar)

In the global scope, you can use the :private option on a def or var to prevent it from being exported to code that imports your current module. You can also add documentation to a function by passing a string the def or var command.

(def mydef :private "This will have priavte scope. My doc here." 123)
(var myvar "docstring here" 321)

Scopes

Defs and vars (collectively known as bindings) live inside what is called a scope. A scope is simply where the bindings are valid. If a binding is referenced outside of its scope, the compiler will throw an error. Scopes are useful for organizing your bindings and my extension your programs. There are two main ways to create a scope in Janet.

The first is to use the do special form. do executes a series of statements in a scope and evaluates to the last statement. Bindings create inside the form do not escape outside of its scope.

(def a :outera)

(do
 (def a 1)
 (def b 2)
 (def c 3)
 (+ a b c)) # -> 6

a # -> :outera
b # -> compile error: "unknown symbol \"b\""
c # -> compile error: "unknown symbol \"c\""

Any attempt to reference the bindings from the do form after it has finished executing will fail. Also notice who defining a inside the do form did not overwrite the original definition of a for the global scope.

The second way to create a scope is to create a closure. The fn special form also introduces a scope just like the do special form.

There is another built in macro, let, that does multiple defs at once, and then introduces a scope. let is a wrapper around a combination of defs and dos, and is the most "functional" way of creating bindings.

(let [a 1
      b 2
      c 3]
      (+ a b c)) # -> 6

The above is equivalent to the example using do and def. This is the preferable form in most cases, but using do with multiple defs is fine as well.

Data Structures

Once you have a handle on functions and the primitive value types, you may be wondering how to work with collections of things. Janet has a small number of core data structure types that are very versatile. Tables, Structs, Arrays, Tuples, Strings, and Buffers, are the 6 main built in data structure types. These data structures can be arranged in a useful table describing there relationship to each other.

	Mutable	Immutable
Indexed	Array	Tuple
Dictionary	Table	Struct
Byteseq	Buffer	String (Symbol)

Indexed types are linear lists of elements than can be accessed in constant time with an integer index. Indexed types are backed by a single chunk of memory for fast access, and are indexed from 0 as in C. Dictionary types associate keys with values. The difference between dictionaries and indexed types is that dictionaries are not limited to integer keys. They are backed by a hashtable and also offer constant time lookup (and insertion for the mutable case). Finally, the 'byteseq' abstraction is any type that contains a sequence of bytes. A byteseq associates integer keys (the indices) with integer values between 0 and 255 (the byte values). In this way, they behave much like Arrays and Tuples. However, one cannot put non integer values into a byteseq.

(def mytuple (tuple 1 2 3))

(def myarray @(1 2 3))
(def myarray (array 1 2 3))

(def mystruct {
 :key "value"
 :key2 "another"
 1 2
 4 3})

(def another-struct
 (struct :a 1 :b 2))

(def my-table @{
 :a :b
 :c :d
 :A :qwerty})
(def another-table
 (table 1 2 3 4))

(def my-buffer @"thisismutable")
(def my-buffer2 @```
 This is also mutable ":)"
 ```)

To read the values in a data structure, use the get function. The first parameter is the data structure itself, and the second parameter is the key.

(get @{:a 1} :a) # -> 1
(get {:a 1} :a) # -> 1
(get @[:a :b :c] 2) # -> :c
(get (tuple "a" "b" "c") 1) # -> "b"
(get @"hello, world" 1) # -> 101
(get "hello, world" 0) # -> 104

Destructuring

In many cases, however, you do not need the get function at all. Janet supports destructuring, which means both the def and var special forms can extract values from inside structures themselves.

# Before, we might do
(def my-array @[:mary :had :a :little :lamb])
(def lamb (get my-array 4))
(print lamb) # Prints :lamb

# Now, with destructuring,
(def [_ _ _ _ lamb] my-array)
(print lamb) # Again, prints :lamb

# Destructuring works with tables as well
(def person @{:name "Bob Dylan" :age 77}
(def
  {:name person-name
   :age person-age} person)

To update a mutable data structure, use the put function. It takes 3 arguments, the data structure, the key, and the value, and returns the data structure. The allowed types keys and values depend on what data structure is passed in.

(put @[] 100 :a)
(put @{} :key "value")
(put @"" 100 92)

Note that for Arrays and Buffers, putting an index that is outside the length of the data structure will extend the data structure and fill it with nils in the case of the Array, or 0s in the case of the Buffer.

The last generic function for all data structures is the length function. This returns the number of values in a data structure (the number of keys in a dictionary type).

Flow Control

Janet has only two built in primitives to change flow while inside a function. The first is the if special form, which behaves as expected in most functional languages. It takes two or three parameters: a condition, an expression to evaluate to if the condition is true (not nil or false), and an optional condition to evaluate to when the condition is nil or false. If the optional parameter is omitted, the if form evaluates to nil.

(if (> 4 3)
  "4 is greater than 3"
  "4 is not greater then three") # Evaluates to the first statement

(if true
  (print "Hey")) # Will print

(if false
  (print "Oy!")) # Will not print

The second primitive control flow construct is the while loop. The while behaves much the same as in many other programming languages, including C, Java, and Python. The while loop takes two or more parameters: the first is a condition (like in the if statement), that is checked before every iteration of the loop. If it is nil or false, the while loop ends and evaluates to nil. Otherwise, the rest of the parameters will be evaluated sequentially and then the program will return to the beginning of the loop.

# Loop from 100 down to 1 and print each time
(var i 100)
(while (pos? i)
  (print "the number is " i)
  (-- i))

# Print ... until a random number in range [0, 1) is >= 0.9
# (math/random evaluates to a value between 0 and 1)
(while (> 0.9 (math/random))
  (print "..."))

Besides these special forms, Janet has many macros for both conditional testing and looping that are much better for the majority of cases. For conditional testing, the cond, switch, and when macros can be used to great effect. cond can be used for making an if-else chain, where using just raw if forms would result in many parentheses. case For looping, the loop, seq, and generate implement janet's form of list comprehension, as in Python or Clojure.

The Core Library

Janet has a built in core library of over 300 functions and macros at the time of writing. While some of these functions may be refactored into separate modules, it is useful to get to know the core to avoid rewriting provided functions.

For any given function, use the doc macro to view the documentation for it in the repl.

(doc defn) -> Prints the documentation for "defn"

To see a list of all global functions in the repl, type the command

(table/getproto *env*)
# Or
(all-symbols)

Which will print out every built-in global binding (it will not show your global bindings). To print all of your global bindings, just use *env*, which is a var that is bound to the current environment.

The convention of surrounding a symbol in stars is taken from lisp and Clojure, and indicates a global dynamic variable rather than a normal definition. To get the static environment at the time of compilation, use the _env symbol.

Prototypes

To support basic generic programming, Janet tables support a prototype table. A prototype table contains default values for a table if certain keys are not found in the original table. This allows many similar tables to share contents without duplicating memory.

# One of many Object Oriented schemes that can
# be implented in janet.
(def proto1 @{:type :custom1
              :behave (fn [self x] (print "behaving " x))})
(def proto2 @{:type :custom2
              :behave (fn [self x] (print "behaving 2 " x))})

(def thing1 (table/setproto @{} proto1))
(def thing2 (table/setproto @{} proto2))

(print thing1:type) # prints :custom1
(print thing2:type) # prints :custom2

(thing1:behave thing1 :a) # prints "behaving :a"
(thing2:behave thing2 :b) # prints "behaving 2 :b"

Looking up in a table with a prototype can be summed up with the following algorithm.

1. (get my-table my-key) is called.
2. my-table is checked for the key if my-key. If there is a value for the key, it is returned.
3. if there is a prototype table for my-table, set my-table = my-table's prototype and got to 2.
4. Return nil as the key was not found.

Janet will check up to about a 1000 prototypes recursively by default before giving up and returning nil. This is to prevent an infinite loop. This value can be changed by adjusting the JANET_RECURSION_GUARD value in janet.h.

Note that Janet prototypes are not as expressive as metatables in Lua and many other languages. This is by design, as adding Lua or Python like capabilities would not be technically difficult. Users should prefer plain data and functions that operate on them rather than mutable objects with methods.

Fibers

Janet has support for single-core asynchronous programming via coroutines, or fibers. Fibers allow a process to stop and resume execution later, essentially enabling multiple returns from a function. This allows many patterns such a schedules, generators, iterators, live debugging, and robust error handling. Janet's error handling is actually built on top of fibers (when an error is thrown, the parent fiber will handle the error).

A temporary return from a fiber is called a yield, and can be invoked with the yield function. To resume a fiber that has been yielded, use the resume function. When resume is called on a fiber, it will only return when that fiber either returns, yields, throws an error, or otherwise emits a signal.

Different from traditional coroutines, Janet's fibers implement a signaling mechanism, which is used to differentiate different kinds of returns. When a fiber yields or throws an error, control is returned to the calling fiber. The parent fiber must then check what kind of state the fiber is in to differentiate errors from return values from user defined signals.

To create a fiber, user the fiber/new function. The fiber constructor take one or two arguments. the first, necessary argument is the function that the fiber will execute. This function must accept an arity of zero. The next optional argument is a collection of flags checking what kinds of signals to trap and return via resume. This is useful so the programmer does not need to handle all different kinds of signals from a fiber. Any un-trapped signals are simply propagated to the next fiber.

(def f (fiber/new (fn []
                   (yield 1)
                   (yield 2)
                   (yield 3)
                   (yield 4)
                   5)))

# Get the status of the fiber (:alive, :dead, :debug, :new, :pending, or :user0-:user9)
(print (fiber/status f)) # -> :new

(print (resume f)) # -> prints 1
(print (resume f)) # -> prints 2
(print (resume f)) # -> prints 3
(print (resume f)) # -> prints 4
(print (fiber/status f)) # -> print :pending
(print (resume f)) # -> prints 5
(print (fiber/status f)) # -> print :dead
(print (resume f)) # -> throws an error because the fiber is dead

Using Fibers to Capture Errors

Besides being used as coroutines, fibers can be used to implement error handling (exceptions).

(defn my-function-that-errors [x]
 (print "start function with " x)
 (error "oops!")
 (print "never gets here"))

# Use the :e flag to only trap errors.
(def f (fiber/new my-function-that-errors :e))
(def result (resume f))
(if (= (fiber/status f) :error)
 (print "result contains the error")
 (print "result contains the good result"))

Macros

Janet supports macros like most lisps. A macro is like a function, but transforms the code itself rather than data. They let you extend the syntax of the language itself.

You have seen some macros already. The let, loop, and defn forms are macros. When the compiler sees a macro, it evaluates the macro and then compiles the result. We say the macro has been expanded after the compiler evaluates it. A simple version of the defn macro can be thought of as transforming code of the form

(defn1 myfun [x] body)

into

(def myfun (fn myfun [x] body))

We could write such a macro like so:

(defmacro defn1 [name args body]
 (tuple 'def name (tuple 'fn name args body)))

There are a couple of issues with this macro, but it will work for simple functions quite well.

The first issue is that our defn2 macro can't define functions with multiple expressions in the body. We can make the macro variadic, just like a function. Here is a second version of this macro.

(defmacro defn2 [name args & body]
 (tuple 'def name (apply tuple 'fn name args body)))

Great! Now we can define functions with multiple elements in the body. We can still improve this macro even more though. First, we can add a docstring to it. If someone is using the function later, they can use (doc defn3) to get a description of the function. Next, we can rewrite the macro using janet's builtin quasiquoting facilities.

(defmacro defn3
 "Defines a new function."
 [name args & body]
 `(def ,name (fn ,name ,args ,;body)))

This is functionally identical to our previous version defn2, but written in such a way that the macro output is more clear. The leading backtick is shorthand for the (quasiquote x) special form, which is like (quote x) except we can unquote expressions inside it. The comma in front of name and args is an unquote, which allows us to put a value in the quasiquote. Without the unquote, the symbol 'name' would be put in the returned tuple. Without the unquote, every function we defined would be called 'name'!.

Similar to name, we must also unquote body. However, a normal unquote doesn't work. See what happens if we use a normal unquote for body as well.

(def name 'myfunction)
(def args '[x y z])
(defn body '[(print x) (print y) (print z)])

`(def ,name (fn ,name ,args ,body))
# -> (def myfunction (fn myfunction (x y z) ((print x) (print y) (print z))))

There is an extra set of parentheses around the body of our function! We don't want to put the body inside the form (fn args ...), we want to splice it into the form. Luckily, janet has the (splice x) special form for this purpose, and a shorthand for it, the ; character. When combined with the unquote special, we get the desired output.

`(def ,name (fn ,name ,args ,;body))
# -> (def myfunction (fn myfunction (x y z) (print x) (print y) (print z)))

Hygiene

Sometime when we write macros, we must generate symbols for local bindings. Ignoring that it could be written as a function, consider the following macro

(defmacro max1
 "Get the max of two values."
 [x y]
 `(if (> ,x ,y) ,x ,y))

This almost works, but will evaluate both x and y twice. This is because both show up in the macro twice. For example, (max1 (do (print 1) 1) (do (print 2) 2)) will print both 1 and 2 twice, which is surprising to a user of this macro.

We can do better:

(defmacro max2
 "Get the max of two values."
 [x y]
 `(let [x ,x
        y ,y]
    (if (> x y) x y)))

Now we have no double evaluation problem! But we now have an even more subtle problem. What happens in the following code?

(def x 10)
(max2 8 (+ x 4))

We want the max to be 14, but this will actually evaluate to 12! This can be understood if we expand the macro. You can expand macro once in janet using the (macex1 x) function. (To expand macros until there are no macros left to expand, use (macex x). Be careful, janet has many macros, so the full expansion may be almost unreadable).

(macex1 '(max2 8 (+ x 4)))
# -> (let (x 8 y (+ x 4)) (if (> x y) x y))

After expansion, y wrongly refers to the x inside the macro (which is bound to 8) rather than the x defined to be 10. The problem is the reuse of the symbol x inside the macro, which overshadowed the original binding.

Janet provides a general solution to this problem in terms of the (gensym) function, which returns a symbol which is guarenteed to be unique and not collide with any symbols defined previously. We can define our macro once more for a fully correct macro.

(defmacro max3
 "Get the max of two values."
 [x y]
 (def $x (gensym))
 (def $y (gensym))
 `(let [,$x ,x
        ,$y ,y]
    (if (> ,$x ,$y) ,$x ,$y)))

As you can see, macros are very powerful but also are prone to subtle bugs. You must remember that at their core, macros are just functions that output code, and the code that they return must work in many contexts!